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Introduction: Violence Prevention in School
João Amado & Isabel Freire (2003)
This article - an excerpt from our book "Violence Prevention in School using the Internet" - first clarifies the concept of violence in school and its sources (individual, academic, cultural and social). Based on international research, it stresses some of the main features of the pedagogical context and the problem of violence in school. The chapter introduces primary, secondary and tertiary preventive measures that can be implemented in schools. It also presents a theoretical and practical set of measures to improve relationships within school and increase the participation of the different actors (teachers, pupils and parents) at the classroom and school level.
For more specific information on selected activities please compare the section "Selected Activities on School Bullying and Violence".
1. Introduction
Due to its complexity, the problem of violence at school requires diversified solutions depending on various causal factors – individual, academic, cultural and social – which could be at its root and have to be recognised beforehand. There is no typical answer nor is there an easy solution for dealing with this problem, as is the case with other problems within a school - disciplinary, low academic achievement, drop outs, etc. Thus, the whole community is challenged, especially teachers, school managers, politicians at various levels, parents, and the students themselves. However, we know that the answer does not only lie in the pedagogical aspect nor does it lie solely in the school itself, but we do recognise, that schools have an important role in implementing preventive measures, considering the impact that they have on the day-to-day life of today's youth. In fact, this impact is not always positive and rewarding, which also turns the school into one of the most frequent scenarios of child and adolescent violence directed at both peers and adults – teachers or other staff. It is therefore important and urgent that teachers and all people responsible for the individual and collective life at school are equipped with the necessary ability and competence to be able to prevent and solve the problems that arise in schools. They need to be able to decide, in collaboration with other sources (either family or community), on the course of action to take against the causes and manifestations of violence in their surrounding social and cultural environment.
The results of international research on violence at school point towards the importance of prevention and the ineffectiveness of disciplinary measures. What really differentiates both teachers and schools in relation to violence and discipline in general is the way problems are anticipated, therefore allowing the prevention of difficult situations. In terms of prevention, we can identify three different courses of action against violence at school (the same applies to indiscipline): primary prevention, secondary prevention (early intervention), and tertiary prevention (intervention for persistent cases). These courses of action also simultaneously promote the students' personal and social development and the quality of life and well-being in general.
2. Primary prevention
For any phenomenon, prevention is a set of measures, more or less coordinated, which will be taken in order to anticipate that particular phenomenon. By promoting a friendly environment in all areas of the institution, the prevention of violence at school contributes simultaneously to the prevention of other serious problems and, ultimately, to the prevention of delinquency and social exclusion.
Naturally, this level of prevention is based on measures taken with young children and it is, in the long term, the most promising approach. At the same time as transmitting a cultural pattern, developing free and responsible citizens, creating opportunities for intercultural dialogue, it is also the school's responsibility in a world replete with various types of conflict, to raise, intentionally and systematically, pupils' awareness of the values of peace, cooperation, care and respect.
Relevant literature suggests that there is a set of rules, which may be considered central for an ethical literacy (Charnay, 1993) and for a preparation for life in the community:
- Developing communicative competences, which allow children and teenagers to learn to listen to others, and to accept and respect different opinions (Ginott, 1971; Glasser, 1986, 1990; Gordon, 1974; Veiga, 1999).
- Values education, which may help children and teenagers to clarify the values guiding their lives, and allow them to make better founded decisions and give them the ability to become self-determined (Raths, Harmin & Simon, 1978).
- Developing a positive and realistic self-concept so that today's child or teenager becomes an adult at ease with himself and others (Krampen, 1987; Marchago Salvador, 1991; Veiga, 1995; Worral et al., 1988).
- Creating real opportunities for students to participate in school life by giving them more responsibility (according to their age), involving school management teams, allowing them to collaborate in the development of school projects, participating in activities or situations related to the day to day management of the classroom and the management of the school itself (Gilborn et al., 1993; Kohlberg, 1987; Pérez Pérez, 1996).
- Creating environmental conditions which may facilitate positive interpersonal relationships, for the general welfare of students, teachers and other staff (Amado, 2001; Cangelosi, 1993; Freire, 2001).
2.1 Preventive action in the classroom by teachers
There are wide-ranging strategies and teaching methods available to teachers in the classroom which may stimulate good interpersonal communication, cooperation, group cohesion, and, consequently, learning. This is made possible by defining clear and adequate rules, by doing cooperative work, and by involving students in the teaching-learning process.
Definition of rules: By establishing clear basic rules with the students in the class, the teacher is contributing greatly to the prevention of undesirable situations. These basic rules should be founded on values such as respect for others and solidarity, and should be implemented by giving timely and appropriate reinforcement of desirable behaviour, and resorting to fair and appropriate sanctions when necessary. The class participation in the definition of a limited and consensual set of clear, explicit and functional rules will most probably lead to a better acceptance of these rules. This process by which the rules are defined does not only have an organisational and classroom management function. It also aims to prepare for life in general. In this sense, the rules selected must be expressed clearly and simply so that students easily understand what is expected of them (Short et al., 1994). This set of rules must also lead children or teenagers to adopt certain values, and should be expressed as far as possible in a positive way (i.e. the behaviour that one expects to find rather than the behaviour that should be avoided) and they should not be embarrassing or humiliating for the students (Smith & Smith, 1979).
Cooperative work: Cooperative learning is among the alternative methods of traditional teaching (competitive and individualist) and has been thoroughly evaluated in relation to its results in academic achievement, personal relationships, the integration of students with special needs, self-esteem and other aspects (Johnson, 1981). These studies suggest that cooperative learning has an effect on the development of more amicable relationships between peers, reducing drastically the problems of victimisation, especially in groups or classes with students of different ethnic origin and students with special needs. It also seems to engender a greater capacity to solve conflicts and a greater commitment to democratic values (Cowie & Sharp, 1998; Slavin, 1991). However, this is not an easy task as children who normally like to resort to aggression with other children do not enjoy cooperative activities, and this makes such activities difficult to implement in the classroom (Smith, Cowie & Berdondini, 1994). The challenge for the teacher is to find the most appropriate way to give support and guidance to the group and to each student in particular so that these difficulties are overcome. Cooperative learning enables a range of competences to be developed through experiential situations. For example, learning to recognise who you are in a group and to accept the other as an interlocutor and member of the same group; learning to listen to others and respecting different opinions; learning to share certain tasks and putting together different competences to improve the qualities of the group; learning to make a decision in group; learning to process, organise, and synthesise information with others.
A helpful and supportive relationship for students with special needs. In addition to the attitudes and competences which are always necessary and directed indiscriminately at the whole class, the teacher must be able to identify and increase their knowledge about the "risk factors" that might be at the root of the aggressive behaviour of particular students and also of those which have the tendency to lead to situations of victimisation. These types of behaviour must be seen as a sign of what is going wrong in the students' domestic, social life or in their school life, and it is crucial that the disturbing factors are identified and that protective measures are set in motion.
2.2 Whole school preventive action
As well as the teachers’ actions in their direct relationship with the students, the school itself has an important role in the establishment of good interpersonal relationships, based on values such as respect for fellow human beings, solidarity and democracy and mutual responsibility in the management of the institution.
The regulations. In the case of schools where violence (particularly between peers) is frequent, it could be important to start by clearly defining a set of rules of social behaviour between students, as well as clarifying the consequences for those who break those rules. This will be reported to the whole school and to the parents. For Tattum and Tattum (1997, p. 78) “this normative should start by expressing positively the patterns of behaviour and the school’s expectations, and then proceed to discriminate the behaviours which are not tolerated and the consequences for those who persist in going against the rules”. The patterns of behaviour should refer to the nature of the relationship between peers, based, above all, on the principles of citizenship.
The regulations should be produced in collaboration with teachers and students and should be made known to the entire staff of the school and parents, so that they too collaborate in, and are part of, the educational process. Furthermore, they should value each institution’s identity by taking into account its educational objective and recognise the need for a flexible pedagogical organisation which is appropriate to the diversity of the students and the environment in which the school is established.
Planning the school’s curriculum. Curricula are powerful means of conveying and assimilating behaviours, attitudes and values. It is crucial that the flexibility of the pedagogical organisation is reflected in the formal or informal curricula. One of the consequences of this curricula flexibility is pedagogical diversity, not only in the selection of the content and the development of competences, but also in the variety of activities and learning situations that are most appropriate to the educational needs of the heterogeneous population which make up our schools and classes today. Studies on this subject have shown positive results on students’ motivation and on the degree of conflict in schools (Cothran & Ennis, 1997; Coulby & Harper, 1985; Morgan-Flemming & Doyle, 1997).
Extra-curricular activities. Extra-curricular activities are considered to be an important part of school life. Pink (1988), a coordinator of various research and intervention projects on the effective school in Australia, sees curricular activities and extra-curricular activities, among other factors, as contributing to this effectiveness.
Theoretical and practical support to combat bullying. The prevention and the fight against bullying demands a rigorous diagnosis of the situation and a plan of action to solve the problems diagnosed and the participation of all members of the school should be promoted. This is an on-going, long-term task, and therefore Dan Olweus (2000) suggests that groups of teachers should be created to look into the development of the social environment of the school (as well as parents’ circles). This initiative would not only be a good strategy to constantly remind everyone of the problem, but would also constitute a training strategy permanently focused on the problems of that particular school.
In the article “Bullying: A whole School Response”, Tattum and Tattum (1997) suggest a variety of reasons based on research, which justify the approach used to deal with the problem of aggression between peers and problematic interpersonal relationships in general at the whole school level. That is:
- To counter the perspective that aggression between peers is inevitable at school; any school must discourage aggressive behaviour at all levels (in teacher-student relationships, as well as others).
- To abandon the perspective of simple crisis management and do everything possible so that the school progressively moves towards a more preventive ethos.
- To promote discussion at all levels. A broader discussion about the problem would bring an end to the perspective that bullying affects only a few students, which leads the victims and those who witness aggression between peers to do nothing about it, and in turn encourages the aggressor to continue since their behaviour goes unpunished.
- To involve more people (the whole school) in identifying, condemning and fighting the problem of aggression between peers.
- To establish a consistent set of procedures for teachers, other staff and heads of school to follow when a case of bullying is detected, which brings us back to the subject of regulations. If there is an agreement on rules and the consequences of infractions, the resulting reflection and well –thought-out decisions is likely to mean that rash decisions are avoided when difficult and unexpected incidents occur.
- To create a safe environment and dismantle codes of secrecy. When aggression between peers is reported by students or parents it must be taken very seriously and acted upon to discourage the aggressor without humiliating and exposing the victim to greater dangers.
- To offer a safe learning environment for all students. Students cannot satisfactory progress in their work if they are strongly affected by anxiety, humiliation and fear.
Nowadays, the school is undoubtedly an important force in the prevention and fight against this type of violence. In his extensive work, Dan Olweus (2000, p. 46) says that in “some schools, the risk of being badly treated by peers is four or five times greater than other schools within the same community”. According to this author, “the staff’s attitudes, routines and behaviour – in particular those of teachers – are significant factors in the prevention and control of bullying, but so are the students’ and parents’ attitudes and behaviour”.
3. Secondary prevention
Secondary prevention (or early intervention) includes all the actions taken by the teacher in the classroom or by the whole school in general (together with the family) which have a corrective and shaping effect on behaviours and attitudes that are considered disruptive for the group or the organisation.
3.1 Teachers’ attitudes towards violence
Corrective action: According to Teresa Estrela (1986, pp. 331) discipline in the classroom essentially entails both “inculcation” and “correction” processes. The “inculcation of the rules” being “a particular aspect of the general inculcating process undertaken by the school and its ideology”, whereas the correction relates to “actions which have as their first objective the re-establishment of the rule which was violated by deviant behaviour”. The way that teachers deal with disciplinary problems is traditionally based on an authoritarian position that it exercises over the group. Behavioural theory and cognitive theory have been the main supports for the implementation and analysis of the disciplinary procedures carried out by teachers.
Behavioural theory concentrates on the observable behaviour of people in the context and consequences of their actions, taking into account the following theoretical principles which originated from Skinner’s psychological theories (1953), and which various authors have tried to reduce to a few principles (Fontana, 1987; Gotzens, 1986). For example:
- Behaviour is susceptible of being described in observable, recordable and quantitative terms;
- “Behaviour is learned”; as a consequence if a person’s behaviour is not acceptable, one can help that person to develop adequate behaviour by manipulating their environment in stages and in a detailed way.
- “The law of effect” and “social re-enforcement”; learning is based on operant conditioning processes, that is, rewarded behaviour (which may be through applause or appraisal in class)and tends to be repeated, whereas behaviour which is not rewarded tends to disappear.
The cognitive perspective focuses on the reasons underlying the behaviour, namely the meaning people give to the environment in which they interact. In the educational context and in this perspective, it is crucial to understand what students think about their behaviour and the teacher’s behaviour, and also to understand what the teacher thinks about the students’ and his own behaviour. There is a great range of terminology relating to this approach to behavioural control, in particular expressions such as locus of control, self-observation, self-concept, self-esteem, empathy, self-consciousness, authenticity, and responsibility (Fontana, 1987). This last perspective which is based on intervention models such as the ones presented by Thomas Gordon (1974) or William Glasser (1986), is associated with a personal and humanistic view of education, and has become increasingly important.
These two theoretical perspectives, although distinct in the way they perceive the subject and the environment, may be complementary, not only in the daily approach to disciplinary and bullying problems but also in research. This complementarity is evident in the area of action, for example, in eclectic models of intervention such as the ones presented by Curwin & Mendler (1985) and Bell and Stefanich (1984). They point out the importance of rules and consequences (rewards and punishment) and propose that students participate in reflective processes through the analysis of situations and their own behaviour and in the resolution of problems. They also stress the importance of building self-discipline and knowledge of oneself, for both student and teacher, without discounting the possibility of the use of behavioural contracts in cases where all successive levels of prevention and early intervention have been applied and no results have been obtained.
The Spanish author Cerezo Ramirez (1999) also follows this eclectic model, emphasising the dynamic role of the class as a “mediator for the reduction of aggressive behaviour” and proposes a programme which is based on three crucial steps. Firstly, analyse the group and understand the interpersonal relationships established in the class; secondly, and after the diagnosis, produce a specific work plan for the victims and another for the aggressors; thirdly, develop simultaneously a plan of action for the group or class.
A caring, demanding and protecting relationship: Creating a positive, stimulating, and friendly environment in and out of the classroom, is an important foundation to carry out early intervention work against situations of aggression and victimisation. As Olweus (2000) states, “it is easier for a student to accept criticism for undesirable behaviour and try to change it if he feels appreciated and relatively loved”. This is particularly true for the great majority of aggressive students who lack affectionate relationships. A trusting and rewarding relationship facilitates the learning of rules, which is fundamental for an aggressive student.
At times, the learning of rules necessitates the application of negative sanctions and consequences for undesirable behaviour. In relation to this, Olweus (2000) recommends that the teacher responsible for the class in which such situations occur, should initiate immediately “serious conversations” with the student-aggressor or students-aggressors and the student-victim, thereby sending out the clear message that aggressive behaviour will not be tolerated. The fact that there are pre-established rules in the school and/or class on aggressive behaviour obviously facilitates this type of conversation. On the other hand, one should keep in mind that the sanctions should not be directly aimed at the person but at the aggressive behaviour, and that they should be a clear signal that mistreating a colleague will not be tolerated. When the use of rewards for positive actions is combined with the use of consistent sanctions for aggressive behaviour and violation of the rules, the dissuading effect is greater.
Protection of the victim is also a crucial matter and most of the time it requires a strong cooperation between the family and the school. Very serious situations such as repeated attacks and assaults may occur, and the victim may urgently need to be encouraged to seek help from a specialist in traumatic situations, who should above all focus on strengthening the victim’s social competences.
3.2 Initiatives taken by and in the school
There are a range of conditions and initiatives taken by the whole school which have become indispensable. We have already mentioned some of them at the level of primary prevention; the same could also be applied to secondary prevention, with special attention being given to the mediation between peers and the necessary collaboration between the school and the family.
The mediation of conflicts between peers implies the preparation and training of leaders of teams (for which a rotation system in the school or class may be adopted) based on specific programmes such as principles of non-violence, techniques for solving conflicts, communication techniques and so on. These leaders must be able to help others to put an end to hostilities, to solve their conflicts and reach an acceptable agreement between the two parties (Diaz & Liatard-Dulac, 1998; Estrela & Amado, 2000; Johnson & Johnson, 1999). This is a strategy of great educational potential that not only engenders the capacity for mutual understanding and cooperation, but it also constitutes an alternative space for communication and therapy (Bonafé-Schmitt, 1997).
It is also the school’s responsibility to organise initiatives which promote regular and frequent communication with the parents and which try to involve families, other schools from all levels of education, and associations and local councils in educational projects in and out of the school (Amado & Freire, 2002; Estrela, 2002).
4. Tertiary prevention
In all schools, although in some more than others, there are students who persistently have disruptive disciplinary problems in the social context of the school and in the learning environment of the class. Traditionally, punishment or exclusion was the procedure adopted in those cases. Research has shown that there is a relationship between this type of persistent behaviour and other factors, such as low achievement at school, lack of self-esteem, incapacity to manage conflict in a flexible way, and lack of other personal and social competences (Amado and Freire, 2002; Veiga, 1995). In relation to this matter, various authors and educators have turned to a more constructive intervention based on the development of the child or teenager’s capacity of strength in the development of empowerment and resilience, instead of focusing on deviance and lack of control. This perspective looks at the protective factors rather than the risk factors. For a school to follow a course of action within this perspective, Brendtro and Long (1995, 56) propose the development of a school ethos based on an intervention in the face of such exceptional cases determined by the four “A’s”:
- Attachment: positive social relationships are prerequisites for a pro-social behaviour.
- Achievement: creating positive expectations means refusing to accept low achievement at school.
- Autonomy: true discipline resides more in demanding responsibility than in obedience.
- Altruism: by helping others, young people discover their own self-confidence.
Even at a family level, rather than looking for explanations for the students’ behaviour (for example, are the parents negligent, does the family have structure) it is important to identify positive aspects that may be used to help the student – a close relationship with a teacher, an uncle or relative who has a close bond, a friend at school who may provide a positive influence. As bad as the situation may be, there are always some aspects of the student’s life that may be “exploited” as protective factors that the educator may use to help the student change his behaviour. Above all, one must believe in the student’s capacity to learn and the possibility of them succeeding at school and one must try to resist negative expectations. These children or teenagers’ lives are often marked by failure, not only at school, and they also have to deal frequently with the idea that adults do not expect a great deal from them.
5. Conclusion
A lot more could still be said about preventive action at all levels, and on disciplinary problems and violence at school. It is a subject that has been extensively written about, but solutions will prove futile if the people involved in these problems at all possible levels, students, teachers, parents, politicians, and society in general, are not sufficiently open and willing to solve them. “This willingness has to come from the recognition that each of us share a responsibility in this matter, and it also has to contradict the usual attitude of blaming someone else; it has to come from the effort to identify prevailing factors in each particular case and the creativity (which is also freedom, enthusiasm, and joy) in the search for solutions. The willingness must come from the idea that, underlying each problem, each incident, there are human beings, maybe lost, confused, who feel rejected, to whom no-one listens… and who have a great desire to cry out that they too exist…” (Amado & Freire, 2002, p. 33). They are “human beings who are, as Paulo Freire (1997, p.163) would say, “developing, changing, growing up, redirecting themselves, improving, but – because they are people – capable of denying values, straying, regressing, breaking the rules…”.
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