Definitions, prevalence and sources of violence in the UK

Anna Hutchinson

Definition

School violence is nearly always called bullying in the UK. Thesetwo terms are very closely related. Both refer to an act that causesphysical or psychological harm, though as outlined below bullying isusually the repetition of these acts.

There has been a growth of interest and research into this area overthe past decade and this has led to an increase in the types ofbehaviours that are being included under the umbrella term 'bullying'.A widely used and inclusive definition of bullying devised by Olweus(1993) and extended slightly by Whitney and Smith (1993), specifiesthat bullying:

• is an aggressive act
• with an imbalance of power
• has some element of repetition
• can be physical, verbal or indirect (i.e. sending nasty notes, exclusion from group).

The definition of bullying itself is beginning to be viewed asproblematic. The outcome of a conflict for a pupil (both externally,i.e. reaction from school, parents, etc. and internally, i.e. effectson self-esteem, concept of self, etc.) is very much determined byidentifying the behaviour as 'bullying' and responding to it as such(see Glover et al., 2000).

Definition currently seems to be source dependent. For example,research suggests that teachers are less likely to identify behaviouras 'bullying' when the aggression concerns finance, dress, intelligenceand sporting prowess than when it concerns race, religion or learningdisabilities (Glover et al., 2001). This problem also applies tohomophobic bullying which appears to be increasing in schools (Rivers,1997). Some behaviours are not being tackled as effectively as othersdue to a lack of consensus regarding the definition of bullying.

The definition of 'indirect' bullying is also being redefinedthroughout the UK with regards to new technology. The idea thatbullying takes place in and around school and through physical orverbal confrontation has had to be reworked with the vast increase inbullying using mobile phones and the Internet. These technologies areallowing bullying to occur without the traditional restrictions ofphysical location or time (seehttp://www.bullying.co.uk/children/mobile_phone.htm andhttp://www.successunlimited.co.uk/related/cyber.htm).

Bullying is currently defined in a variety of ways in UK literature.We need to strike a balance between being too specific, and thus notgiving weight to conflicts which fall outside of the definition, andtoo general, which could allow almost any interaction to be framedwithin an aggressive context.

Prevalence

Research suggests that bullying in the UK is a 'normal' part ofschool life (Tyler, 1998). Results vary regarding the actual numberswho have been/will be bullied at some point during their education;with figures ranging from 37% (Elsea, 2001) to over 80% (Fontaine1991), but they are consistently high. There is an agreement in theliterature that approximately 10% of all students experience severe andregular bullying for some part of their school life (see also McDougall1999). There appears to be little difference between rural and urbanschools with regards to prevelance, though teachers in both areasreport that there appear to be increasing amounts of bullying andbehavioural problems within schools. (seehttp://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4261480,00.html).

There seems to be a prevalence of more verbal than physical bullyingand there has been an increase in the amount of indirect bullying dueto the increased use of mobile phones and the Internet for this purpose(for example see www.successunlimited.co.uk/related/mobile.htm).

Research has also found a greater prevalence of bullying behavioursbeing reported within primary schools by pupils (Arora, 1999). However,this may be due to the increasing influence of the peer group with age(i.e. 'telling' less tolerated by older peers) and possibly thedevelopment of low expectations with regards to the way that reportedbullying is dealt with (McDougall, 1999).

There is also a difference in the prevalence of types of bullyingrelating to gender. Boys tend to be victims and perpetrators of morephysical bullying whilst girls encounter more verbal bullying. However,this too is age-specific and the divide only exists at secondary schoollevel.

School bullying in the UK is widespread. Certain groups and agesappear to be more likely to experience, or report, bullying behaviours.Thus prevalence, like definition, is very much source-specific.

Sources

What makes a victim?

 A lot of the recent UK-based research into the sources ofbullying has focused on marginalisation and vulnerability in victims.Vulnerability itself appears to be making bullied pupils moresusceptible to victimisation. A child with anything saliently differentfrom a very strict peer 'norm' is more vulnerable and thus has anincreased risk of being bullied.

'it is a sad comment on group behaviours that it is the anxious,depressed pupils with poor self esteem, who already have much to copewith in terms of physical, personal, or social disadvantage, who becomethe victims of bullies' (Leff, 1999).

Therefore, the sources of bullying may be endless but regularlyinclude, physical/mental disabilities, family situations/status,appearance, sexuality, academic/sporting ability, economic background,race, religion, and rate of sexual development (for more examples seeRandall, 1996).

What makes a bully?

 Research into the source of bullying from the perspective ofthe bully has also begun to focus on vulnerability. Many researchershave suggested that bullies are often themselves victims of bullyingand that they may be repeating a pattern of learnt abuse. Equally, ithas been suggested that they may be projecting dislike or anger withthemselves onto others (see Colvin et al., 1998).

Though not a direct source, research has began to focus on theschool environment and how this too can increase or decrease thechances of bullying behaviour occurring. For example, Randall (1996)has demonstrated that behavioural problems are more likely to occurwhen there is a clash of culture between a school and the community itserves. This whole-school approach has become highly relevant, both inidentifying sources of bullying and in developing interventionprogrammes to combat it (Tyler, 1998).

Literature and links

Bibliography

Arora, C., M., J., (1999), Levels of bullying measured by Britishschools using the 'Life in School' checklist. Pastoral Care inEducation, 17, 1: pp.17-22

Colvin, G., Tobin, T., Beard, K., Hagan., S, Sprague., J., (1998),The school bully: assessing the problem, developing interventions, andfuture research directions. Journal of behavioural education, 8, 3:pp.293- 320.

Elslea, M., (2001), School Bullying: Severity, Distress and Coping.British Psychological Society Centenary Annual Conference, Glasgow.

Fontaine, J., L., (1991), Bullying: The child's view - An analysisof telephone calls about bullying. London: Calouste GulbenkianFoundation.

Leff, S., (1999), Bullied children are picked on for their vulnerability. British Medical Journal, Vol. 23.

Olweus, D., (1993), Bullying in school: What we know and what we can do. Oxford: Blackwell.

Randall, P., (1996), A community Approach to Bullying. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Books.

Rivers, I., (1997), Lesbian, gay and bisexual development: theory,research and social issues. Journal of community and applied socialpsychology, 7, 5: pp.329-344

Tyler, K, (1998), A comparison of the No Blame approach to bullyingand the ecosystemic approach to changing problem behaviour in schools.Pastoral Care in Education, 16, 1: Mar, pp.26-32.

Whitney, I., & Smith, P.K., (1993), A survey of the nature andextent of bullying in junior/middle and secondary schools, EducationalResearch, 35, 1: pp.3-25.

WWW

 The UK charity Bullying Online gives information and advice on managing mobile phone bullying and cyberstalking.

• www.bullying.co.uk/children/mobile_phone.htm

These links take you to Success Unlimited, a UK site which focuseson bullying in all sectors of society. The site offers in-depth advice,and more links, about cyber and mobile phone bullying.

• www.successunlimited.co.uk/related/cyber.htm
• www.successunlimited.co.uk/related/mobile.htm

Article describing a poll of teachers' opinions regarding problem behaviour and bullying prevalence in UK schools.

• www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4261480,00.html